A New Study of the Title of the Reigning Dynasty during the Pre-Qing Period

Abstract What was the title of reigning dynasty from time when Nurhachi assumed “khan” to Hong Taiji declared himself emperor? There remains controversy among scholars as whether “Jin” 金 or “Later Jin” 後金 used, if both were in use during different periods. Based on voluminous historical sources dating pre-Qing period, which have been published and even digitized recent years, addition conducting first comprehensive search relevant Manchu Chinese well artifacts, authors confirmed that there is no conclusive evidence proving once used dynasty. over a hundred instances official usage “Jin,” also concluded remained entire period “Tianming” (Mandate Heaven) not an emperor’s reign.